STUDY STUDIO / 01Financial
Accounting.
11 月 GM 備考 · 從 FA 開始 · 2026-10-29 編排
以 Pinelli live slides 為主,Q&A 01:52:59 明確說明:clips 中未在她課堂涵蓋的內容不考。此頁將現有學習筆記第 8 節整理成 10 章;章末為自編練習,並非官方題庫。
正式考試:11/7(教授 Q&A);60 分鐘、16 題選擇,對 +2、錯 −0.25。可帶計算機、一張 A4 公式表(只能寫公式)。不會給整張財報從頭算,也不考財務槓桿公式推導。最終場次以個人 email / Flow 為準。
從今天到考前
10/29:第 1–2 章;10/30:第 3–4 章;10/31:第 5–6 章;11/1:第 7 章;11/2:第 8 章;11/3:第 9–10 章;11/4:重做錯題、整理 A4;11/5:限時綜合演練;11/6:只回顧錯題、公式與考場用品。每天約 90–120 分鐘。
其他 GM 科目接續順序與準備方式
FA → Business Statistics(35 分、24 題四選一,錯扣 1/3,不可用計算機、電子裝置或公式表)→ BIE(60 分、50 題,錯不扣分)→ Digital Transformation(60 分、2 題開放,練 1–2 頁論述)→ Corporate Finance(60 分、8 題:6 選擇 + 2 簡化計算,closed book、不能帶公式表)。五科逐章教材均已完成,可由上方全科入口進入;實際優先順序需依個人考程調整。
FA / CHAPTER 01 · 35–50 MINFinancial analysis and accounting standards (slides 5 to 8)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖報表是理解公司的共同語言
想像你要投資一家公司:你需要知道它賺不賺錢、欠多少錢,以及能不能按時付款。本章先建立財務分析的用途,再說明會計準則為什麼讓不同公司的數字能被比較。
使用者的決策 → 財務資訊 → 會計準則與可比性
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["使用者的決策"]
N1["財務資訊"]
N2["會計準則與可比性"]
N0 --> N1
N1 --> N2
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能說出:報表能協助哪些決策?為什麼相同數字仍要確認會計政策?
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
Why financial accounting: it provides the "numbers" we hear about a company (revenues, profit, asset value), and together with expectations it contributes to company evaluation:
- Share price and market capitalisation in day-to-day trading (financial analysis)
- Target price in an M&A (due diligence)
- Selling price of shares in an IPO (due diligence)
- Credit stability (rating services)
Financial analysis = a process of selecting, evaluating and interpreting financial data, along with other pertinent information, to assess a company's present and future financial condition and performance.
It is more than calculating indicators. It requires:
1. Sources selection and data triangulation
2. Segmental analysis
3. Common size analysis
4. Reclassification and adjustments
5. Benchmarking
6. Accounting-based indicators (selection)
7. Interpretation
Accounting principles (standards) define, for any event with an economic and/or financial impact:
| Question | Meaning |
|---|
| Where to register | Format of the financial statements |
| What to register | Definition of assets/liabilities, revenues/costs, cash inflows/outflows |
| How to register | Calculation of the monetary value of accounting items |
繁中詳細解說
為什麼要學財務會計
市場上聽到的營收、獲利、資產價值都來自財報。財報數字加上市場「預期」,共同決定日常交易中的股價與市值、併購的目標價、IPO 的發行價,以及信用評等。後三者都會經過 due diligence(盡職調查)。
Financial analysis(財務分析)是流程,不是算公式
定義重點:選資料、評估、解讀,而且要搭配「其他相關資訊」,目的是判斷公司現在與未來的財務狀況和績效。
七個步驟依序是:選資料來源並交叉驗證(triangulation,三角驗證);分部門分析(segmental,例如依事業部或地區拆開);共同比分析(common size,把各項目換成佔營收或總資產的百分比,方便不同規模公司比較);重分類與調整;標竿比較;挑選會計指標;最後解讀。算比率只是第六步。
會計準則回答三個問題
Where 是報表格式;what 是什麼算資產、負債、收入、成本、現金流入流出;how 是金額怎麼算。只要事件有經濟或財務影響,就要依準則處理。
FA / CHAPTER 02 · 35–50 MINAnnual report and accrual basis (slides 9 to 12)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖先分清楚「賺到」與「收到」
公司今年提供服務、明年才收錢,今年到底有沒有收入?這是權責發生制要解決的時間問題。Annual report 則把獲利、資源與現金分成不同報表呈現。
交易發生 → 收入與成本歸屬 → 三張報表各自回答不同問題
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["交易發生"]
N1["收入與成本歸屬"]
N2["三張報表各自回答不同問題"]
N0 --> N1
N1 --> N2
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能說出:Income statement、Balance sheet、Cash flow statement 各在看什麼?
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
The IAS/IFRS annual report has 5 compulsory documents:
| Document | What it describes | Time logic |
|---|
| Balance sheet | Monetary value of assets and related rights (equity and liabilities) | A point in time (usually midnight of 31/12) |
| Income statement (profit and loss account) | Economic value (revenues and costs) of physical and financial transactions | A period (usually one year) |
| Statement of changes in shareholders' equity | Effects of the year's transactions on shareholders' equity | A period |
| Statement of cash flow | Results (inflows and outflows) of financial transactions | A period |
| Notes to financial statements | Rules followed, hypotheses made, and all complementary data needed to interpret the other documents | Supports the others |
Matching principle: the annual report uses accrual-basis accounting. Revenues and expenses are recognised when earned or incurred, regardless of when cash is received or paid. This reflects the economic reality of transactions, not just cash movements.
Example: service delivered in December, paid in January → revenue recorded in December.
Listed companies must also provide:
- Report of independent auditors: external professional opinion on whether the statements are accurate and comply with standards.
- Report of supervisory board: evaluates governance and oversight of management (compliance with laws, internal controls).
- Management report: prepared by executives; explains performance, strategy and risks, complementing the statements.
繁中詳細解說
五份必要文件
資產負債表是「時點」報表,像 12/31 午夜拍的一張照片;損益表、權益變動表、現金流量表都是「期間」報表,記錄一年內發生的事。附註說明編表規則、假設和補充資料,沒有附註,其他四份很難正確解讀。
注意用語:損益表看的是「經濟價值」(收入與成本),現金流量表看的是「財務交易的結果」(現金流入流出)。這就是 clips 01.04 講的 profit 與 cash flow 的差別。
Accrual basis(權責發生制)
收入在賺到時認列,費用在發生時認列,和收付現金的時間無關。投影片例子:12 月提供服務、1 月才收到錢,收入仍記在 12 月。這樣才能反映經濟實質。
上市公司多三份
會計師查核報告(外部意見:財報是否正確、是否符合準則);監察委員會報告(看治理與對管理層的監督);管理階層報告(由經營團隊說明績效、策略與風險)。
FA / CHAPTER 03 · 35–50 MINBalance sheet under IAS/IFRS (slides 13, 14, 23 to 25)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖一張表,從兩側看同一家公司
左側看公司持有哪些資源,右側看資源由誰提供。資產、負債與權益不是三堆互不相干的名詞,而是一個必須平衡的結構。接著再用流動/非流動判斷時間與分類。
Assets(資源) = Liabilities(債權人權利) + Equity(股東權利)
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["Assets(資源) = Liabilities(債權人權利) + Equity(股東權利)"]
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能分類常見項目,並用等式求缺漏值;借款不等於營收。
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
The balance sheet shows the monetary value of assets (resources) and equity and liabilities (rights) at a point in time.
- Assets: resources available to the company and useful to produce value (cash, receivables, inventory, property, equipment). Split into current (convertible into cash within a year) and non-current (long-term investments, property, intangibles).
- Liabilities: what the company owes to external parties (loans, accounts payable, other obligations). Split into current (due within one year) and non-current (long-term debt, lease obligations).
Assets side (IFRS format):
| Block | Group | Items |
|---|
| Non-current assets | Tangible resources | Property, plant and equipment; Investment property |
| Intangible assets | Goodwill; Other intangible assets |
| Financial resources | Equity investment; Other non-current financial assets; Deferred tax |
| Current assets | | Trade and other receivables; Inventories; Ordered work in progress; Short-term financial assets; Cash and cash equivalents |
| Assets held for sale and disposal groups | | Value expected to be realised through a sale, not through use; classified as held for sale when immediately available for sale |
Equity and liabilities side (rights):
| Block | Items |
|---|
| Shareholders' equity | Issued capital; Reserves; Net profit/loss for the financial year |
| Non-current liabilities | Bonds; Bank debts; Other financial non-current liabilities; Provisions for liabilities and charges; Pensions and similar obligations; Deferred tax liabilities |
| Current liabilities | Bonds; Bank debts; Trade and other payables; Other financial current liabilities; Current tax liabilities |
| Liabilities directly associated with assets held for sale | |
Non-current and current liabilities together are the stakeholders' rights.
繁中詳細解說
資源 vs 權利
Pinelli 用「resources」和「rights」描述兩側:左邊是公司能用來創造價值的資源,右邊是誰對這些資源有權利。權益是股東的權利,負債是外部利害關係人(銀行、債券持有人、供應商、政府)的權利。
資產三組
非流動資產再分有形(廠房設備、投資性不動產)、無形(商譽、其他無形資產)、金融(股權投資、其他長期金融資產、遞延所得稅資產)。流動資產包括應收帳款、存貨、承攬中的在製工程(ordered work in progress)、短期金融資產、現金。
Held for sale(待出售資產)
這是 IFRS 才特別列的一組:公司打算賣掉、而且現在就能賣的資產,價值靠出售實現,不靠繼續使用。右側對應有「與待出售資產直接相關的負債」。這和 clips 01.08 的 discontinued operations(停業單位)概念相連。
負債側
債券和銀行借款同時出現在長期與短期,差別在剩餘期限。長期還有準備(provisions)、退休金類義務、遞延所得稅負債;短期有應付帳款、應付稅款。
FA / CHAPTER 04 · 35–50 MINValuation criteria, depreciation and inventories (slides 15 to 22)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖同一項資產,該用什麼金額放進報表?
買一台設備後,不能每年都把原價當成它永遠不變的價值。本章處理三件事:初始如何衡量、使用期間如何分攤成本,以及存貨價值下降時怎麼處理。
取得成本/公允價值/使用價值 → 折舊 → 存貨成本與淨變現價值
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["取得成本/公允價值/使用價值"]
N1["折舊"]
N2["存貨成本與淨變現價值"]
N0 --> N1
N1 --> N2
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能算直線折舊,並解釋 FIFO、加權平均與成本和淨變現價值孰低的差別。
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
IAS/IFRS evaluation criteria are a combination of three methods:
| Method | Definition | Example |
|---|
| Purchase cost | (a) Price actually paid to take possession of (or benefit from) the resource; or (b) cost actually incurred to create it | (a) Price paid for machinery, a building, a patent; (b) value of raw materials, labour etc. consumed to build them |
| Market value (fair value) | Price at which the resource can be exchanged in the market, i.e. transferred to an interested buyer | Price a company in the same type of production would pay for the equipment |
| Value in use | Present value of the cash flows the company can reasonably expect from using the asset | Discounted revenues and costs from producing and selling product x on that machine |
Fair value is estimated (also through appraisal) based on: a binding sales agreement for the asset; values in an active market; or recent comparable transactions.
用一台機器看懂折舊
先把三個數字分開:成本 C 是買進金額;殘值 R 是預計使用結束後還能回收的金額;使用年限 n 是預計使用幾年。直線法把「成本減殘值」平均分攤到每一年。
$$D=\frac{C-R}{n}$$
例:成本 €1,000,殘值 €200,使用 5 年:
$$D=\frac{1{,}000-200}{5}=160\ \text{euros per year}$$
每年認列 €160 的折舊費用;這是把成本分配到使用期間,不是每年再付 €160 現金。假設每年完整使用,且沒有減損或重估:
$$\text{Accumulated depreciation after }t\text{ years}=160t$$ $$\text{Carrying amount after }t\text{ years}=1{,}000-160t,\quad 0\le t\le5$$
第 1 年底帳面價值 €840;第 3 年底 €520;第 5 年底 €200,等於預計殘值。Carrying amount 是帳面價值,不保證等於當下市場售價。
Depreciation = the portion of utility attributable to the financial year. It depends on cost, useful life (estimated years of use) and residual value (estimated amount from selling the asset at the end of its useful life).
$$\text{Depreciation} = \frac{\text{Cost of the asset} - \text{Residual value}}{\text{Useful life}}$$
Straight-line: carrying amount at each year-end = acquisition cost − accumulated depreciation (assuming no impairment or revaluation).
$$\text{Carrying amount at end of year }t = C - \sum_{i=1}^{t}D_i$$
Example: plant bought 31/12/2012 for €1,000k, useful life 5 years, residual value €200k. Depreciation = (1,000 − 200) / 5 = 160 per year.
| Year-end | Value (€k) |
|---|
| 2012 | 1,000 |
| 2013 | 840 |
| 2014 | 680 |
| 2015 | 520 |
Inventories, three types:
- Finished goods: items held for sale
- Work in progress: items held for sale but not yet completed
- Raw materials or consumables: items to be used in production
Recorded at the lower of (a) purchase/production cost and (b) net realizable value. Any impairment of inventories is an expense of the year.
Purchase cost of inventories = purchase cost for raw materials; production cost for finished goods and WIP. Tracking each unit is too burdensome, so flow-based methods are used, alternatively:
- FIFO (First In, First Out)
- Weighted average cost
LIFO (Last In, First Out) is obsolete under current standards.
繁中詳細解說
三種評價方法
取得成本(purchase cost)是實際付出的價格,或自己建造時實際耗用的材料、人工等成本。公允價值(fair value)是在市場上賣給有意願買家的價格,例如同業願意為這台設備付的錢;可依具約束力的買賣合約、活絡市場報價、近期可比交易來估計,也可以請鑑價。使用價值(value in use)是繼續使用這項資產預期帶來現金流的折現值。
折舊
折舊是把資產效用分攤到每一年。三個輸入:成本、耐用年限、殘值。公式(成本 − 殘值)/耐用年限。投影片例子:1,000 買入、殘值 200、用 5 年,每年折舊 160;2015 年底帳面價值 520。注意 2012 年底剛買,所以 2012 不折舊,2013 才開始扣。
存貨三種、兩個價值取低
製成品(可賣)、在製品(要賣但還沒做完)、原料或耗材(投入生產用)。帳上記「成本」和「淨變現價值」兩者較低者;跌價損失當年認列為費用。這是保守原則:存貨不能記得比賣得掉的錢還高。
淨變現價值(NRV)= 正常營業下預計售價 − 完工成本 − 銷售必要成本(運費、業務佣金等)。
成本流動假設
逐件追蹤成本太麻煩,所以用 FIFO(先進先出)或加權平均。LIFO(後進先出)在現行準則下已淘汰。投影片把 NRV 的定義放到加權平均那一行,是排版錯誤,考試若問定義要分清楚。
FA / CHAPTER 05 · 35–50 MINEquity: issued capital, reserves, net profit (slides 26 to 29)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖權益不只是當初投入的股本
股東投入資本,公司賺錢後保留盈餘,兩者都可能增加權益,但對損益的意義完全不同。本章把股本、準備與本期淨利拆開,避免把所有現金流入都當收入。
股東投入 + 累積保留成果 + 本期淨利 → Equity
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["股東投入 + 累積保留成果 + 本期淨利"]
N1["Equity"]
N0 --> N1
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能區分出資、借款與賺取收入,並理解股利如何影響權益。
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
Issued capital: established at incorporation; the capital shareholders have paid in or committed to pay. It equals the nominal value of shares issued, net of treasury shares (e.g. after buy-backs), reduced by receivables from shareholders for the unpaid portion.
Example: Company A has 100 ordinary shares, par value €2; holds 15 as treasury shares; shareholders still owe 1/10 of the subscribed capital.
$$\text{Issued capital} = 100 \times 2 - 15 \times 2 - 20 = 150$$
(Unpaid portion = 1/10 × €200 = €20.)
Reserves: additional shareholders' equity rights generated during normal operations. Main types:
| Reserve | Content |
|---|
| Retained earnings (or accumulated losses) | Profits of previous years not distributed; or losses of previous years not covered by capital increases |
| Legal / statutory reserve | Required by law or by the company statute |
| Share premium reserve | Shares issued above nominal value |
| Revaluation / foreign exchange and other reserves | Value changes from revaluation and currency translation |
Net profit: profit (if positive) or loss (if negative) attributable to shareholders, accrued in the financial year. It can also be derived as total assets − all remaining liabilities and equity items in the balance sheet.
繁中詳細解說
Issued capital(已發行股本)三步驟
先算已發行股數 × 面額,再扣庫藏股(公司自己買回的股份,例如 buy-back 後持有),再扣股東認購了但還沒繳的錢。例子:100 股 × 2 = 200;庫藏股 15 × 2 = 30;未繳 1/10 × 200 = 20;結果 150。
注意第三步的 1/10 是對「認購股本 200」算,不是對扣完庫藏股後的 170 算。
Reserves(公積/保留盈餘)
保留盈餘是以前年度沒發掉的獲利;如果是虧損且沒有用增資彌補,就變成累積虧損。法定/章程公積是法律或公司章程要求提列的(clips 補充義大利規則:每年 5%,直到達股本 20%)。股本溢價是高於面額發行的部分。重估與匯兌公積來自資產重估或外幣換算。
淨利是平衡項
資產負債表兩邊必相等,所以總資產扣掉其他所有負債與權益項目,剩下的就是本期淨利。這和 clips 01.10 說「不平衡交易」產生損益是同一件事。
FA / CHAPTER 06 · PINELLI SLIDES 32–37
Income statement by nature and by function
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖同一家公司,兩種整理成本的方法
公司今年賣出產品、用了材料、付了薪資。損益表想回答的是:今年賣出的成果,扣掉應歸屬今年的成本,最後賺多少?兩種格式處理的是同一批交易,只是成本的分組方式不同。
By nature:花在什麼資源? → By function:資源用來做什麼? → 調整存貨與成本歸屬 → 同一個 EBIT
讀完要能:從採購推到原料耗用,再從生產成本推到銷貨成本;看懂兩種格式為什麼 EBIT 相同。
1. 先不要背表:同一筆薪資,可以貼兩種標籤
Nature 問「這筆成本是什麼?」材料、薪資、租金、折舊,都是資源的性質。Function 問「這筆成本用來做什麼?」用於生產、銷售、行銷或管理,則是用途。
| 同一筆交易 | By nature:性質 | By function:用途 |
|---|
| 工廠員工薪資 | Labour cost | 生產成本;產品售出後進 COGS |
| 業務人員薪資 | Labour cost | Selling cost |
| 行政人員薪資 | Labour cost | Administration cost |
| 工廠機器折舊 | Depreciation | 生產成本;已售部分進 COGS,未售部分留存貨 |
所以「按部門」只是理解 function 的入口。更準確地說,是按用途或活動功能分類;同一筆成本不會因為換格式就算兩次。共用資源可能需要分攤:例如同一棟樓由生產與行政共同使用,可依合理的面積比例把租金分到不同功能。
2. 先分清楚三件事:買了多少、用了多少、賣掉多少
買進原料不表示當年全用掉;投入生產也不表示產品當年全賣掉。這是兩種格式看起來不同的主要原因。
$$\text{Raw materials consumed}=\text{Opening RM}+\text{Purchases}-\text{Closing RM}$$
RM 是 raw materials。原料仍放在倉庫時是資產;投入生產後轉為製成品或在製品成本;產品售出後才進入 COGS。
$$\text{COGS}=\text{Opening FG/WIP}+\text{Production cost}-\text{Closing FG/WIP}$$
FG = finished goods;WIP = work in progress。COGS 只算已售出商品的生產成本,不是所有本期支出。銷售與行政等期間費用一般直接歸屬當期,不加入製成品存貨。
一筆成本從原料走到損益表3. 一組數字,完整走過兩種格式
自編練習情境(非官方題目):本期營收 €800。期初原料 €50,本期採購 €300,期末原料 €70。生產人員薪資 €160,其他製造成本 €60。期初沒有製成品或 WIP,期末製成品 €100,也沒有 WIP。銷售與行政費用 €100(其中薪資 €60、辦公室租金 €40),另有行政設備折舊 €20。本例刻意假設沒有製造折舊,先讓兩種格式的主幹清楚。沒有其他營業收入、減損或特殊項目。
第一步:買了 €300 原料,但實際耗用 €280。
$$\text{RM consumed}=50+300-70=280$$
原料存貨增加 €20,表示有 €20 仍留在原料倉庫,不能當成已耗用。
第二步:把真正投入生產的成本加起來。
$$\text{Production cost}=280+160+60=500$$
第三步:把未售出的 €100 留在存貨。
$$\text{COGS}=0+500-100=400$$
製成品增加的 €100 是按成本衡量的未售出產品。它不是 €100 的銷售收入,也不是多賺 €100,而是把尚未售出的生產成本留到未來。
4. 並排看:兩條路,最後都到 EBIT €280
| By nature:資源性質 | € | By function:用途 | € |
|---|
| Revenue | 800 | Revenue | 800 |
| +製成品存貨增加 | 100 | − COGS | −400 |
| − 原料耗用 | −280 | = Gross profit | 400 |
| − Labour:生產 160 +銷售/行政 60 | −220 | − 銷售/行政費用:薪資 60 +租金 40 +折舊 20 | −120 |
| − Other operating costs:製造 60 +租金 40 | −100 | | |
| = EBITDA | 300 | function 中折舊已放入行政功能成本 | |
| − D&A:行政設備折舊 | −20 | | |
| = EBIT | 280 | = EBIT | 280 |
By nature 為什麼加回製成品存貨增加?因為左邊已經把全部 €500 的生產資源列為成本,所以加回未售出的 €100,讓本期實際扣掉的生產成本只有 €400。右邊 COGS 已經是 €400,就不用再加回 €100。
$$\underbrace{800+100-500}_{\text{by nature}}=\underbrace{800-400}_{\text{by function}}=400$$
上式只是先把兩邊對齊到「扣除已售生產成本之後」;左邊扣完銷售/行政資源才到 EBITDA。Gross profit €400 不是 EBITDA €300,更不是 EBIT €280。
Slide 33 的原料存貨行要小心投影片用「− Variation of inventories of raw materials (initial − final)」。這行容易因為外面的減號而搞混。別只背「存貨變動要加還是減」,先寫下面這個永遠可檢核的耗用關係:
$$-\text{RM consumed}=-\text{Purchases}-\text{Opening RM}+\text{Closing RM}$$
本例是 −300 −50 +70 = −280。期末原料多,耗用較少;期末製成品多,當期 COGS 也較少。但兩種存貨處在不同階段,不能混成同一項。
5. EBIT 以下,兩種格式一樣算
接著假設 financial costs €30、financial revenues €10,稅率 25%。
$$\text{EBT}=280-30+10=260$$
$$\text{Taxes}=260\times25\%=65,\qquad \text{Net profit}=260-65=195$$
EBIT 是營業利益,還沒計入財務收支與所得稅。Gross profit 是營收扣 COGS;本例 EBITDA 可由 EBIT 加回 €20 的折舊得到;若有製造折舊留在存貨,要確認題目採用的 D&A 與 EBITDA 定義,詳見下方進階說明。EBITDA 不是現金流,還沒有處理應收、存貨、應付等收付款時間差。
進一步:如果工廠也有折舊,為什麼不能機械地全部加回?
製造設備折舊也可能先進入產品成本,隨未售產品留在存貨,不一定全部成為當期損益費用。本例若新增製造折舊 €40,且製成品仍有本期產量的 20% 未售:生產成本變 €540,期末製成品 €108,COGS €432。EBIT = 800 −432 −100 −20 = €248。
€40 製造折舊中,€8 留在存貨、€32 進當期 COGS;加上行政折舊 €20,當期損益中的 D&A 是 €52。若僅加回進入當期損益的 D&A,EBIT +52 = €300。若照簡化 nature 表先把全部 D&A 拿掉、又保留含折舊的存貨變動,得到投影片簡化格式的 €308(EBIT 248 +本期全部 D&A 60)。這與僅加回損益內 D&A 的 €300 差了 €8,源自存貨內的折舊。兩者採用的加回口徑不同,不能把差額誤認成多賺的現金。
考試先依題目給定的 EBITDA/D&A 定義與課堂表格計算;沒有給製造折舊或存貨分攤,就不要自行添加假設。也不要說 function 格式「不能算 EBITDA」:只要另有適當 D&A 明細,仍可重建。
6. Revenue recognition:不要把「收到錢」當成唯一條件
Slide 34 的課堂判斷點包括商品風險與報酬移轉、服務完成程度可可靠衡量、收入可可靠決定且經濟效益很可能流入,以及相關成本可可靠衡量。商品與服務的條件要依交易性質判斷,不是每次賣商品都還要檢查一次服務完成度。這裡保留老師投影片的用語作考試準備,不把它當成現行準則的完整條文。
7. 四個最容易選錯的地方
① 採購 ≠ 耗用 ≠ COGS。② 製成品存貨增加不是銷售收入。③ Gross profit、EBITDA、EBIT 是不同層級。④ 換分類不會自行改變 EBIT;兩種格式都應使用相同的交易、評價與成本歸屬假設。
來源:Pinelli slides 32–37;上述數字與教學對照為自編,並非官方例題。原料耗用與製成品 COGS 分別核對,避免照抄簡化格式造成重複計算。此章已由 Claude Opus 審查後重寫;完整審查紀錄保存在同資料夾 reviews/income-statement-opus-review.txt。
FA / CHAPTER 07 · 35–50 MINCash flow statement and operating working capital (slides 38 to 43)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖有獲利,為什麼還缺現金?
賒銷讓收入先出現、現金晚到;存貨占用資金;折舊則減少利益卻沒有當期付款。本章用營運、投資、融資三類活動解釋現金變化,再用營運資金把利益連回現金。
Profit → 調整非現金項目 → 調整 operating working capital → Operating cash flow
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["Profit"]
N1["調整非現金項目"]
N2["調整 operating working capital"]
N3["Operating cash flow"]
N0 --> N1
N1 --> N2
N2 --> N3
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能判斷應收、存貨、應付增加時的現金流方向;買設備與借款要放對類別。
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
The cash flow statement summarises inflows and outflows of financial transactions in a period, under cash logic. Three categories:
| Category | Flows |
|---|
| Operating activities | Selling and purchasing of products/components |
| Investing activities | Acquisition and disposal of assets (new equipment, sale of equipment or buildings) |
| Financing activities | Changes in the company's capital structure (new debt, dividends) |
Two methods:
- Direct method: cash inflows and outflows classified by operating, investing and financing activities.
- Indirect method: cash flows derived by adjusting profit for non-cash items (e.g. depreciation). The starting point is an accrual measure; all costs that are not a cash outflow are added back.
| Direct method | Indirect method |
|---|
| Operating activities | Operating activities |
| + Cash receipts from customers | Profit before interest and income taxes |
| − Cash paid to suppliers | + Depreciation and amortisation |
| − Cash paid to employees | + Changes in receivables (beginning − final) |
| − Cash paid for other operating expenses | + Changes in inventories (beginning − final) |
| − Interest paid | + Changes in trade payables (final − beginning) |
| − Income taxes paid | − Interest paid |
| − Income taxes paid |
| = Net cash from operating activities | = Net cash from operating activities |
| Investing activities | Investing activities |
| − Acquisition of assets | − Acquisition of assets |
| + Disposal of assets | + Disposal of assets |
| Financing activities | Financing activities |
| − Dividends paid | − Dividends paid |
| ± Repayments of borrowings | ± Repayments of borrowings |
| = Net increase/decrease in cash | = Net increase/decrease in cash |
Operating working capital (OWC), the three working-capital lines of the indirect method:
$$\Delta OWC \text{ effect} = (\text{Receivables}_{beg} - \text{Receivables}_{fin}) + (\text{Inventories}_{beg} - \text{Inventories}_{fin}) + (\text{Payables}_{fin} - \text{Payables}_{beg})$$
OWC = short-term resources needed to finance daily operations: how much cash is tied up in receivables and inventories after considering supplier payables. Higher OWC → more liquidity needed; lower OWC releases cash.
| Change | Cash flow impact |
|---|
| ↑ Trade receivables (owed by customers) | Negative (amounts still due from customers) |
| ↑ Inventories | Negative (more capital invested in stock) |
| ↑ Trade payables (owed to suppliers) | Positive (delaying payments to suppliers) |
繁中詳細解說
三類現金流
營業活動是買賣產品與零件的現金;投資活動是買進或處分資產(設備、建物);籌資活動是資本結構變動(借新債、發股利、還款)。
直接法 vs 間接法
直接法直接列「從客戶收多少、付供應商多少、付員工多少」。間接法從利潤出發,先加回不花現金的成本(折舊攤銷),再調整營運資金變動,最後扣實際付出的利息與稅。兩種方法的營業現金流結果相同。
為什麼起點是 EBIT 而不是 EBT
表格先從 EBIT 開始,下面再扣「實付利息」和「實付稅款」。如果從 EBT 開始,EBT 已經扣過利息費用,再扣一次實付利息就重複。投影片文字寫 EBT,但表格用 EBIT,以表格為準比較合理。
營運資金(OWC)三條線的方向
應收帳款增加:賣了東西但錢還沒收到,現金減少,所以用「期初 − 期末」,增加時為負。存貨增加:錢壓在庫存上,同理為負。應付帳款增加:晚付供應商,現金暫時留在公司,所以用「期末 − 期初」,增加時為正。
自設例子:應收從 100 升到 130(−30)、存貨從 80 降到 70(+10)、應付從 50 升到 65(+15),營運資金對現金的影響 = −30 + 10 + 15 = −5。
OWC 越高,日常營運需要越多現金;壓低 OWC(快收款、少庫存、晚付款)就能釋出現金。
FA / CHAPTER 08 · 35–50 MINRatio analysis: profitability (slides 44 to 56)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖把「賺多少」變成「效率多好」
相同淨利放在大小不同的公司,代表的表現不一樣。本章替獲利找正確的分母:股東的資金、投入資本或營收,再追查利潤率、週轉與槓桿如何影響結果。
ROS(利潤率) × Turnover(週轉) → 投入資本報酬 → 槓桿與稅後股東報酬
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["ROS(利潤率) × Turnover(週轉)"]
N1["投入資本報酬"]
N2["槓桿與稅後股東報酬"]
N0 --> N1
N1 --> N2
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能選對 ROI/ROA/ROE/ROS 的分母;依 Pinelli 的定義讀題,不混用 clips 公式。
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
Ratio analysis summarises the economic profit achieved and its main components (profitability analysis) and the status of liquidity and its coherence with existing obligations (liquidity analysis).
Ratios give more information than absolute numbers and allow comparison of:
- the company over time (trends, impact of non-ordinary events);
- the company with other firms (industry dynamics).
Ratios give signals to investigate further, and must be handled carefully:
- When comparing firms, understand the accounting principles and evaluation criteria each uses.
- For balance-sheet items, define whether you use year-end, initial or average values.
Three perspectives of profitability analysis:
| Perspective | Main item |
|---|
| Shareholders' | Net profit (E), the shareholders' "reward" |
| Overall company's | Operating profit (EBIT) |
| Stakeholders' | Effects of interests (I) and taxes (T) on net profit |
Shareholders' perspective
$$ROE = \frac{\text{Net profit}}{\text{Shareholders' equity}} \qquad \text{Net profit margin} = \frac{\text{Net profit}}{\text{Revenues}}$$
- ROE expresses the overall result as a percentage return on equity. A synthetic indicator for current or potential shareholders; the higher, the better managers use the equity base. Can be compared with other companies, even in different business areas, to decide where to invest.
- ROE alone is not sufficient: net income comes from three areas (operating, financial, extraordinary) and ROE does not reveal where profitability originates.
- Net profit margin = share of revenues shareholders retain. Caveat: profit can also come from fair-value changes, gains on asset sales, reversal of provisions, financial income, discontinued operations.
Overall company's perspective
$$ROA = \frac{EBIT}{\text{Total assets}} = \underbrace{\frac{EBIT}{\text{Revenues}}}_{ROS} \times \underbrace{\frac{\text{Revenues}}{\text{Total assets}}}_{\text{Asset turnover}}$$
$$ROI = \frac{EBIT}{\text{Invested capital}} \qquad \text{Invested capital} = \text{Equity} + \text{Financial debts}$$
$$\text{Operating profit margin} = \frac{EBIT}{\text{Revenues}} \qquad \text{EBITDA margin} = \frac{EBIT + \text{Depreciation} + \text{Amortisation}}{\text{Revenues}}$$
| Ratio | Meaning |
|---|
| ROA | Ability to "translate" all resources into operating income |
| ROI | Ability to generate returns from the financial resources invested |
| ROS (return on sales) | Profitability: ability to "retain" revenue as operating margin (keep costs low for a given revenue) and/or price well above cost |
| Asset turnover | Operating efficiency: if it rises, more revenue from the same resources, or same revenue with fewer |
| Operating profit margin, EBITDA margin | Profit from continuing operations; isolate the impact of D&A. EBITDA margin compares firms in the same industry with different vertical integration |
Stakeholders' perspective
$$\frac{D}{E} = \frac{\text{Total liabilities}}{\text{Equity}} \qquad IR = \frac{\text{Financial expenses} - \text{Financial incomes}}{\text{Total liabilities}} \qquad ETR = \frac{\text{Net earnings}}{\text{Pre-tax profit}}$$
| Ratio | Meaning |
|---|
| Debt-to-equity | Commitment of suppliers, lenders, creditors and other non-equity investors vs commitment of shareholders |
| Interest rate (IR) | Relative weight of interest expenses on total liabilities; lower = less burdened by debt expense |
| Effective tax rate (ETR) | Actual tax burden; can differ from the statutory rate (incentives, deductions, credits, deferred taxes, jurisdictions) |
Financial leverage (gearing), Pinelli version:
$$ROE = \left[ROA + \frac{D}{E}(ROI - r)\right] \times ETR \qquad r = \frac{\text{Financial expenses} - \text{Financial incomes}}{\text{Financial liabilities}}$$
- ROE depends on the profitability of assets (ROA/ROI) and the financing structure (D/E).
- The ROI-ROE relation is mediated by debt: higher D/E amplifies ROE over ROI, but also raises r (more interest to pay).
- ROI > r: debt-financed investments contribute positively to ROE (the firm earns more than third-party resources cost).
- ROI < r: debt reduces ROE (interest exceeds what assets earn).
繁中詳細解說
比率的用途與限制
比率比絕對金額更好比較:可以看同一家公司跨年度的趨勢(包括非經常事件的影響),也可以和同業比。但比率只是「訊號」,要再追查原因。比較不同公司時要確認會計原則和評價方法是否相同;用到資產負債表項目時,要說清楚用期末、期初還是平均值(clips 04.01 的 ROE 50%/33%/40% 就是這個問題)。
三個角度
股東看淨利;整體公司看 EBIT(不受融資方式和稅影響);利害關係人角度看利息和稅怎麼把 EBIT 變成淨利。
股東角度:ROE 與淨利率
ROE = 淨利/權益,股東投入的錢賺了幾 %,可以跨產業比較來決定投資哪裡。但 ROE 看不出獲利來自營運、財務還是非常項目。淨利率 = 淨利/營收;要注意淨利可能包含公允價值變動、處分資產利得、迴轉準備、財務收入、停業單位損益,不全是本業。
整體公司角度:ROA、ROI、ROS、資產週轉
ROA = EBIT/總資產,看「全部資源」轉成營業利益的能力。ROI = EBIT/投入資本,Pinelli 定義投入資本 = 權益 + 金融負債(不含應付帳款等營運負債),看「投入的資金」賺多少。
ROA = ROS × 資產週轉。ROS = EBIT/營收(每一元營收留下多少營業利益:成本控制或訂價能力);資產週轉 = 營收/總資產(每一元資產帶來多少營收:營運效率)。clips 04.03 用同樣拆法,但分母是 D+E。
營業利益率與 EBITDA 利潤率
EBITDA 利潤率加回折舊攤銷,適合比較同產業但垂直整合程度不同的公司:自己擁有工廠的公司折舊高,外包的公司折舊低,看 EBITDA 才公平。
利害關係人角度:D/E、IR、ETR
D/E 在這裡用「總負債」:供應商、銀行、債權人等非股東的投入 vs 股東投入。IR =(財務費用 − 財務收入)/總負債,越低代表債務負擔越輕。ETR = 淨利/稅前利潤;名稱叫有效稅率,但這個比率其實是「稅後留下的比例」,等於 1 − 實際稅率。實際稅率會因租稅優惠、扣除、抵減、遞延稅、不同稅區而偏離法定稅率。
財務槓桿公式(Pinelli 版本)
ROE = [ROA + D/E ×(ROI − r)] × ETR。關鍵是 ROI − r:投資報酬高於借款成本,借越多 ROE 越高;低於借款成本,借錢反而拖累 ROE。槓桿同時放大好與壞的結果,而且 D/E 提高通常也會讓 r 上升。
自設例子(用 ROI 代入兩處、ETR = 0.75):ROI 10%、r 4%、D/E = 1,ROE =(10% + 1 × 6%)× 0.75 = 12%。若 r 變 12%,ROE =(10% − 2%)× 0.75 = 6%,比不借錢的 7.5% 還低。
FA / CHAPTER 09 · 35–50 MINLiquidity analysis (slides 57 to 59)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖獲利能力之外,還要能按時還錢
公司可能帳上有利潤,卻沒有足夠現金償付短期債務。本章把流動資產與流動負債配對,並問:如果存貨短期賣不掉,公司的安全餘裕還剩多少?
Current assets / Current liabilities → 排除較難變現項目 → 更嚴格的流動性檢查
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["Current assets / Current liabilities"]
N1["排除較難變現項目"]
N2["更嚴格的流動性檢查"]
N0 --> N1
N1 --> N2
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能算 current ratio 與 Pinelli quick ratio,並解釋比率高低仍需看資產品質與產業。
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
Liquidity analysis evaluates the status of liquidity and its coherence with present obligations: the ability to meet financial obligations when claimed by the owners of related rights.
It first assesses the money needed to sustain the operating cycle (working capital assessment), then uses ratios from two perspectives.
Assets-liabilities perspective (balance sheet):
$$\text{Current ratio} = \frac{\text{Current assets}}{\text{Current liabilities}} \qquad \text{Quick ratio (acid test)} = \frac{\text{Cash} + \text{Short-term investments} + \text{Receivables}}{\text{Current liabilities}}$$
They measure how far current assets (in the quick ratio, only the most liquid ones) are readily available to pay off current liabilities.
Cash-flow perspective (cash flow statement):
$$\text{Cash flow-to-debt} = \frac{\text{Operating cash flow}}{\text{Financial liabilities}}$$
$$\text{Short-term debt coverage} = \frac{\text{Operating cash flow}}{\text{Short-term financial liabilities}} \qquad \text{Capex coverage} = \frac{\text{Operating cash flow}}{\text{Capital expenditure (CAPEX)}}$$
繁中詳細解說
流動性問的是「付不付得出來」
不是問賺不賺錢,而是債權人來要錢時,公司手上有沒有足夠可用資金。先看營運週期需要壓多少錢(營運資金),再看比率。
資產負債表角度
流動比率 = 流動資產/流動負債。速動比率只計最容易變現的:現金、短期投資、應收帳款,排除存貨等需要時間才能變現的項目。clips 版本是「流動資產 − 存貨」,兩者接近但 Pinelli 的更嚴格。
現金流量表角度
三個比率的分子都是營業現金流:本業一年真正產生多少現金。現金流對負債比 = 能覆蓋多少金融負債;短期負債覆蓋率 = 能覆蓋多少一年內到期的金融負債;資本支出覆蓋率 = 本業現金夠不夠支應投資(> 1 代表不用借錢或增資就能自己出錢投資)。
資產負債表比率是「時點存量」,可能在 12/31 被美化;現金流比率看「一年流量」,比較難操弄。
FA / CHAPTER 10 · 35–50 MINDigital transformation and RODI (slide 60)
OVERVIEW · 先建立地圖數位化也要回到投入與成果
投資數位工具不能只看「導入了什麼」。本章把數位轉型連回財務分析:花了哪些資源,帶來哪些效益,以及如何以 RODI 評估回報。
Digital investment → 營運效益與資源變化 → 衡量投資報酬
概念圖 · 先沿箭頭讀一次查看 Mermaid 原始碼
flowchart TD
N0["Digital investment"]
N1["營運效益與資源變化"]
N2["衡量投資報酬"]
N0 --> N1
N1 --> N2
帶著這個問題讀:讀完要能解釋營收成長為何不必然等於數位投資成功,並辨認投入與報酬的範圍。
讀下面的解說 → 闔上內容口述重點 → 完成本章測驗。英文名詞保留,中文幫你建立解題邏輯。
Digital investments drive growth beyond a simple return on assets: they increase revenue (new channels, better customer experience) and improve margins (automation, efficiency), making the company more competitive and resilient.
But they require significant upfront capital, which temporarily lowers profits and cash flow; benefits are not immediate or easy to measure, so the investment can look unprofitable in the short term.
Return on Digital Investment (RODI) balances these effects and highlights long-term value creation beyond traditional metrics. Hypothetical formulas (no standard formula yet):
$$RODI = \frac{EBIT}{\text{Invested capital in digital assets}} \qquad RODI = \frac{\text{Digital revenues} - \text{Digital investments}}{\text{Digital investments}}$$
繁中詳細解說
數位投資的會計難題
數位轉型長期能增加營收(新通路、更好的顧客體驗)並提高利潤率(自動化、效率),但一開始要投入大量資本,短期內獲利和現金流反而下降,效益又不容易量化。只看 ROA、ROI 會覺得不划算。
RODI 兩種假設公式
第一種像 ROI:EBIT /投入在數位資產的資本。第二種像投資報酬率:(數位營收 − 數位投資)/數位投資。投影片明講還沒有標準公式,所以考題比較可能問概念(為什麼需要 RODI),而不是要你背一個固定算法。這也和 Digital Transformation 課程的 shareholder value 討論相連。
來源與使用方式
主要內容:GM Financial Accounting 學習筆記,第 8 節,Pinelli slides 5–60;考試範圍:gen/Accounting Q&A.md,01:50–01:55;題型:gen/General Management Exams_Info Session.md(10/21)。筆記的公式版本差異警示仍保留。此頁不額外加入 EVA、MVA 或 Balanced Scorecard 等只在 clips 出現的章節。
每章目前是 1 題迷你測驗,適合檢查讀後理解;不等同完整的 16 題正式模擬考。